Brain Death and Organ Donation in Children and Adults Essay -- Science

Brain Death and Organ Donation in Children and Adults Introduction Does one try to save a premature baby who has little chance of survival? When do doctors or family members decide to "pull the plug" on a loved one? When is organ donation the correct choice? Is this patient the one on which God will choose to perform a miracle? What about a postmortem delivery? Is it realistic to be able to have a child postmortem? These questions are difficult for any of us to answer - even more so if we are dealing with a situation in which we may have to answer one or more of these questions. Yet, for some of us, these questions are all too real. If someone is considered to be in a vegetative state and the doctor determines that they are not coming back, when do family members decide to let go? When do family members give up hope? These questions can only be answered once a person is faced with a situation where he or she needs to determine another's fate. All of the answers to the questions are personal answers and no one should judge another person for making a choice in a difficult situation. Decisions regarding organ donation and when an unconscious person has died or experienced brain death are very difficult decisions for the family to make, even with the help of medical professionals. Organ donation started in 1869 and since then the procedure has improved but doctors with unethical practices still, and always will, exist. After all of the improvements in adult organ donation, questions still remain about organ donation and anencephalic infants. Should these infants be treated as human beings, should they be allowed to donate their organs? What happens to any infant whose mother dies before delivery of the child? Def... ...tion? Works Cited Ackerman, Terrence. A Casebook of Medical Ethics. New York:Oxford UP, 1989. Gorman, Christine. "Are Animal Organs Safe for People." Time. 15 January 1996. Henderson, Allen. Get With It-Teen Perspectives on Donation. The Indiana Heart Institute. 1994. Humber, James M. Biomedical Ethics and the Law. 2nd Edition. New York: Plenum, 1979. Koukl, Gregory. "Babies as Organ Farms". L.A. Times. 8 June 1995. Lamb, David. Death, Brain Death and Ethics. Albany:New York UP, 1985. Mason, JK. Human Life and Medical Practice. Great Britain:Edinburgh UP, 1988. Neufeldt, Victoria. Webster's New World Dictionary. 3rd Edition. New York: Prentice Hall, 1991. Pothier, Richard. "Animal Tests Saved My Life." Newsweek. 1 February 1993. Stedman, Thomas Lathrop. Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 24 Edition. Baltimore:Williams and Wilkins, 1982.

Quantitative and Qaulity Research

Quantitative & Qualitative Research COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Introduction This paper compares and contrasts qualitative and quantitative research methods in three basic areas. These are the of their: epistemological foundations, data collection methods, and data analysis methods. The paper ends with a brief summary of the primary points made. ComparisonGall, Borg and Gall (1996) discuss several similarities and differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods. With respect to similarities, both kinds of research formulate epistemological positions regarding the nature of causation and reality and both comprise a set of methods for designing research, collecting data, analyzing data, and deriving information from data collection and analysis.However, they differ in terms of the epistemological positions they advocate and in the methods they hold to be appropriate for meaningful scientific inquiry. One primary difference between the t wo research methods according to Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) involves their epistemological assumptions about the nature that causality. The quantitative method, according to the authors, rests on a view of causation as an external, measurable force that occurs independently of the observer and can be used to explain diverse phenomena.On the other hand, the conceptual foundation of qualitative research holds that causation itself is predominately a human interpretive process. The foregoing assumptions have implications for how scientists should study reality. Quantitative research roots its methods of acquiring information in a view that holds that reality is external to the observer whereas the qualitative method grounds its methodological principles and practices in the notion of reality as an interpretative construct.This point has been discussed by Wainwright (1997) who states that typically qualitative research seeks to discover information about any given phenomenon by obtainin g an in-depth understanding of the meanings and definitions of the phenomenon that are conceptualized by informants; moreover, these need not be many informants; a simple case study of one individual is said to yield much given the subjective element of reality.Quantitative research, based on its assumptions of causation and reality, attempts to arrive at an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon by measuring â€Å"it† in some fairly objective manner with results that can be established as valid by a set of formal scientific/methodological principles of inquiry and set criteria for reliability and validity. It seeks for results that are stable across time.Thus, while qualitative research aims at discovering how a very small collective interpret a phenomenon, quantitative research looks at some objective index of the phenomenon attempting to produce information that is stable and valid for large populations and samples. Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) note that for some domains s uch as education, the existing knowledge base consists of information obtained by both quantitative and qualitative research.The authors point out that many research experts believe it is quite acceptable to use both kinds of research to collect information about a given phenomenon despite their differing assumptions—-provided that the two methods are assigned differing roles in terms of the contribution they make to understanding the phenomenon being studied. With respect to the foregoing, qualitative methods are assigned the role of intensively observing some small sample and conceptualizing possible themes, patterns, processes, and/or structures as being involved in the phenomenon of interest.Quantitative methods are then called upon to determine whether the conceptualized constructs are supportable or confirmed. For example, a quantitative study might be conducted of three special education students' responses to inclusion with possible patterns of response being conceptu alized based on this small sample. Quantitative methods would then be used to determine whether this pattern of response is present in a much larger collective of special education students.Thus, qualitative and quantitative research can be seen as working together in complementary fashion. Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) report that the extent to which the two types of research can work to complement each other, in actual practice, is dependent on two contingencies. First, the phenomena being studied must be stable across time. Second, qualitative researchers must provide constructs that can be operationalized which is to say that can be measured in some objective way using a numerical system of some sort.If these conditions are satisfied, quantitative measures can then be used to support whether what is present at the individual or case level is also present for larger populations and samples. Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) further report that some researchers do not believe the two resear ch approaches can actually work together in a complementary fashion; this because of their differing epistemological views of causation and reality — views which make for not only conceptual but also profound methodological differences.For example, quantitative research stipulates that a researcher must state what can be expected to be revealed by his data analysis based on existing research (hypothesis formulation and testing). Qualitative researchers, however, believe that theories and concepts are only meaningfully derived AFTER the data has been collected. Similarly, the two research types differ in the methods they use to derive meaningful information from the data. Quantitative methods hold that the data should be analyzed statistically while quantitative research holds that it should be analyzed using formal methods of reasoning and interpretation.Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) have also listed some of the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods i n terms of the reports each side outputs following their investigations. In this regard, the authors state that the reports of quantitative research tend to be impersonal and objective write-ups of research findings. Qualitative research reports, on the other hand, are said to reflect the researcher's analytical reconstruction and interpretation of data provided to readers with an awareness that the readers themselves will, in fact, reinterpret what is reported.However, since it is likely that the epistemological structures of both research methods have some truth and some error in their epistemological frameworks, Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) state that it is quite possible that both methods can contribute valid data and so edify scientists' attempts to understand a given phenomena when used together in a complementary fashion. Given the foregoing, it seems reasonable to suggest that the determination as to whether a given researcher should use qualitative or quantitative methods, or use both conjointly, may depend upon the nature of information he desires and the use to which it shall be put.For example, Crowl (1996) states that if a researcher desires to focus on some complex issue and to use it in a pragmatic way, then it is wise to conduct research using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Both methods are said to provide a broader examination of the phenomenon and thus yield a fuller understanding of its complex structure. This broader look, in turn, is said to foster greater insight into the ways the information can be practically applied. Mertes (1998) states that there are certain kinds of information needs that are better suited to being answered using qualitative methods than quantitative methods.These are said to include: (1) the need to understand in detail why an individual does something; (2) the need to determine what aspects, components, or elements of a given issue or phenomenon are important and why they are important; (3) the need to i dentify a full range of responses or opinions existing in a given collective; and (4) the need to find areas of consensus in patterns of response. On the other hand, Mertes (1998) states that quantitative research is probably the best choice if there is a need to determine â€Å"how many† or to measure some volume-related characteristic of a collective.In other words, quantitative research should be used when there is an interest in how many people in a population have a particular characteristic or response. Further, Mertes (1998) reports that quantitative research is appropriate for measuring attitudes and behaviors, for profiling certain groups, and for formulating predictions. One particularly interesting point about qualitative and quantitative research methods is to note that the distinguishing characteristics are actual differences only to a certain extent.For example, McKereghan (1998) notes that qualitative and quantitative research can be distinguished in several wa ys and goes on to list some of these differences. Specifically, it is noted that quantitative research is objective; qualitative research is subjective. Quantitative research seeks explanatory laws; qualitative research aims at in-depth description. Quantitative research measures what it assumes to be a static reality in hopes of developing universal laws. Qualitative research is an exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic reality.It does not claim that what is discovered in the process is universal and, thus, replicable. However, what McKereghan (1998) points out is that when actual research studies are examined in methodological detail, they seldom fit the sharp clear models of differences that are provided in written discussions of the two research approaches. Rather, in most any given study, elements of quantitative and qualitative procedures can be found. Because of this, McKereghan argues that discussing research using this dichotomy may not be especially applicable to w hat actually goes on in the world of research.Thus, while the two methods can be distinguished, it is probably important to note that this clarity of distinction is present far more in theory than in practice. Finally, it can be noted that quantitative methods help to make generalizations to larger groups and follow a well-established and respected set of statistical procedures, of which the properties are well-understood. However, in terms of practice, there is again an important issue related to whether practice actually meets the standards set for this research approach.As noted by Gall, Borg and Gall (1996), many studies are designed poorly, i. e. , many studies cannot find a significant difference when one exists, due to insufficient sample sizes or to extremely small effect sizes. Further, quantitative methods are often misinterpreted. Summary In this paper's comparison of qualitative and quantitative research methods, several points were made. It was noted that the two resear ch approaches differ in terms of their epistemological positions on causation and reality and this in turn makes for a number of methodological differences in the approaches.For example, it was noted that qualitative research typically entails in-depth analysis of relatively few subjects for which a rich set of data is collected and organized. Quantitative research, on the other hand, was said to entail the proper application of statistics to typically a large number of subjects. Further, the points were made that while quantitative research is objective; qualitative research is subjective. Also, it was noted that quantitative research seeks explanatory laws; qualitative research aims at in-depth description.In addition, quantitative research was said to measures what it assumes to be a static reality in hopes of developing universal laws while qualitative research is an exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic, shifting, interpretative reality. It was noted that due to the di ffering nature of the two research approaches, it is likely that the selection of which to use will depend upon the nature of the information sought by the researcher and the use to which this information will be put. Examples were offered showing the kind of research to which each method or a combination of methods are particularly suited.Finally, the point was made that while there appear to be large differences between the approach from a philosophical/conceptual position, in actual research, methods from both approaches are often used. Further, the standards set for conducting each particular type of research, especially quantitative research, are often not met. References Crowl, T. K. (1996). Fundamentals of educational research (2nd ed. ) Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark. Gall, M. D. , Borg, W. R. & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction (6th ed. White Plains, NY: Longman. McKereghan, D. L. (1998). Quantitative versus qualitative research: An attempt to clar ify the problem. Document available at:http://socrates. fortunecity. com/qvq. html. Mertes, D. M. (1998). Research methods in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative and qualitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wainwright, D. (1997). Can sociological research be qualitative, critical and valid? The Qualitative Report, 3(2). Document available: http://nova. edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/wain. html.

A Literature Review On Bank Mergers - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1797 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Introduction This paper takes a look at effects of Bank Mergers in the UK. It also shows how banks are affected by mergers and their effects on retail interest rates and customers. It also takes a look at how bank mergers help bring about improvement which is passed on to the customers. The main aim of the paper is to analyze the effects of Bank Mergers. It also takes a look at the environmental factors which lead to the mergers taking place. Aims and Objectives The aim of this paper is to analyse who the beneficiaries of a bank merger are and the cost analysis of the merger. It analyses the costs which are involved with the merger and its effects on the customer. The paper also deduces whether the retail interest rates are not influenced by the effects of mergers. Furthermore it also looks at how different banking products can be affected by mergers. The objectives of this work are: To review the extant conceptual frameworks and models associated with Bank Mergers To identify how mergers affect the relationship between banks and their customers To analyse the cost analysis associated with the mergers of Banks To understand the external factors which lead to mergers taking place between banks Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Literature Review On Bank Mergers" essay for you Create order Literature Review Bank Mergers are usually subjected to anti competition or antitrust laws if they are found to be limiting the field for competition. The key to a bank merger is that it should bring about benefits to the sector instead of restricting it. There should be synergy between banks instead of tightening the noose and making it tough for everyone. If there are no savings being passed on to the customers then there is no use of a bank merger. There have been scenarios where bank mergers were not permitted by the Competition Commission as the customers would not benefit from the merger. (Competition Commission 2001). The regulatory bodies have to ensure that all gains from the merger do not benefit the merged bank but are passed on to the customers. There is a lot of scrutiny when it comes to bank mergers and identifies the relationship between efficiency and price changes after a merger has taken place. According to Farrell and Shapiro (1990) prices and retail interest rates can fall only i f there were lower marginal costs before the merger of the two banks. Mergers are known to have failed if they dont bring about any savings or benefit to the customers. Mergers are not beneficial to the customer if the interest rates for customers are higher. The efficiency of merging banks influences the competition in the market. Bank mergers lead to bad conditions for the consumer if the merger does not promise efficiency. If a bank records efficiency gains after a merger then it brings about price improvements. Bank mergers tend to affect certain banking products in different ways. . Research Setting The research is based upon the UK retail banking market. It examines the large and small banks and takes a deep look at the mergers which took place over the last few years and the mergers which failed to take place. Both building societies and UK retail banks are analyzed as they all offer different retail banking services. The research only includes banks that are in the UK retail banking market. The research also takes a look at the mergers which occurred between the small building societies as it is easier to gather data for that. The research has limited adding the mergers between bigger banks. RESEARCH QUESTIONS In order to make sure that the research is conducted properly we have to set a number of key questions so that the research will be able to answer them. To identify how mergers affect the relationship between banks and their customers To analyse the cost analysis associated with the mergers of Banks To analyse the external forces which lead to mergers between banks RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This particular assignment follows the traditional research methodology which allows the research to be conducted in various layers one after the other. The first one is the philosophy of Positivism where a researcher adopts the stance of a scientist who has to evaluate everything in a philosophical manner and understands the evolutionary process of how things are done. The interpretivism philosophy is where things are created due to the interaction between individuals. The research looks at all the issues associated with mergers within the banking retail market. the data is gathered through proper research. There is the need to gather quantitative as well as qualitative data in order to prove the theories and conclusions. RESEARCH APPROACH The research is conducted by examining all the data in a systematic format. Most of the data is present in documentary format along with information available in various journals and papers. All the data needs to be interpreted in a proper organized manner and needs to be separated in order to get the gist of the research. RESEARCH STRATEGY This research paper takes an in-depth look at the effect of mergers between banks and how it affects the banking products in the UK. It also examines how it can affect the interest rates in the banking sector. The paper also takes a look at the external factors which push the market in favour of mergers. It examines factors such as bear market which leads to share prices falling, dire economic situation which lead to problems, bad balance sheets which lead to a drain of capital, mergers which take place mainly due to help two troubled banks i.e. Lloyds TSB and Halifax, losses suffered by the investment arm of banks, collapse of big corporations which lead to a domino effect, hedge funds making losses and lastly due to the insurance divisions which do not do well. It also examines how the retail interest rate is affected if a merger does not go well. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS It is essential for me to follow a proper code of conduct before going ahead with my research process. There is a fine line between ethical and unethical research. The information gathered will be done with the consent of everyone and no laws shall be broken to obtain the data. I shall ask all the people interviewed to sign waiver forms and to give me indemnity from any potential problems. A point to bear in mind is not to intimidate any of the subjects or to harass them in handing over vital information. DATA COLLECTION The plan is to contact all of the various building societies and a few of the big banks which merged in the not so recent past. I need to visit them all and collect information on the types of products they have. It would help to visit someone from the corporate headquarters as retail banks would not have the competent staff which would allow me to gather the information I need. Higher ranked officials at the various banks can only give me information about how their bank products were affected and how mergers in the retail banking sector leads to different interest rates. Data will be collated through both qualitative and quantitative questionnaires, series of interviews, documentary analysis. I would also need to do a walkthrough with people from the various banks and building societies so that I can get the right idea. The questionnaires will be quite straight forward and will only comprise of a few limited questions which are closed ended. The interview process will not take long and will only be a one on one session which is also close ended. The only problem is to schedule everything within a particular timeline. There are a lot of people to interview and that is one reason why it is crucial for me to limit the time I spend on all my interviews so that I can get everything done really fast. It is also interesting to know that both questionnaires and interviews will generate different answers so special attention will have to be paid to both. Document samples are a must to be collected from the various banks in the area. The data collected will be from both primary and secondary resources. Primary Data I will gather all the primary data by simply gathering all the information via personal visits to the various banks and building societies which have been created as a result of a merger between two banks. It will be useful to find out how the banks were able to change their policies and how the merger affected their interest rates. The cost analysis will also be done after taking a look at the before and after status of the merged entities. Bank personnel will be giving me their valuable time so it would help me save time by only sticking to close ended interviews for the session. This will make it easier for both parties. The banks should hopefully provide me with documents I need to support my work and allow me to create my quantitative data. Secondary data Secondary data will be gathered with the help of external sources. It is essential to check out proper databases which deal with the type of historical data required for my analysis of the retail banking sector. The best idea for me is to base my work conducted by a researcher on the same topic. It also helps to do a bit of reading up on the topic so that I would know what this research entails. It is obvious that I wont be able to get all my data from people so I would need to gather information from journals, databases, white papers, etc. some of the data can be cited from text found in the documents supplied by the banks. DATA ANALYSIS The data needs to be examined one by one so that mistakes are not made. There are plenty of key points which can be examined only by going through it with a fine tooth comb. Data can be analysed in the form of charts, tables etc. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Finally the research can be summarised as the sort who will allow me to understand why mergers take place between banks and how the retail banking sector is affected. I will be able to make my conclusions after I have gone over everything at the end of the study. TIME FRAME OF RESEARCH The research program needs to be conducted within a specific timeline. Due to limitation of time and the amount of legwork to be conducted I need to finish my research within 22 weeks. This gives me plenty of time for discovery and to jot all my information down on paper. If I do not finish my research on time it will delay everything and create various problems.